Persistent Issues in the History of Communication: Identity, Power, and Justice

After combing through the weekly class discussion questions and responses, my own notes, and my blog posts throughout the semester, I've come to the conclusion that the history of communication (in the Western world) is deeply tied to three persistent issues that we as humans have always grappled with and continue to grapple with: identity, power, and justice. What I would like to do for this last post is to highlight certain points in our journey of reflection that emphasize the role of these concepts as we strive to understand where we are and where we are going.

Identity through memory and how we relate to our world
A major theme that bubbled to the top consistently for me throughout this course is the importance for us as humans to forge a personal and collective identity. It seems we've consistently managed to do this by leveraging the power of memory and by building a common cultural discourse using communication tools. We came across this phenomenon from the beginning of the course, as we took in Homer and tried to understand the mechanics and the importance of the poetic tradition as a way to memorize the values and characteristics of that society. As Havelock states in his Preface to Plato, 

the post-Homeric Greek, "is required as a civilized being to become acquainted with the history, the social organization, the technical competence and the moral imperatives of his group... this over-all body experience (we shall avoid the word 'knowledge') is incorporated in a rhythmic narrative or set of narratives which he memorises and which is subject to recall in his memory. Such is poetic tradition, essentially something he accepts uncritically, or else it fails to survive in his living memory." (page 198)

This poetic tradition, then, was not a means of creative expression, but rather a means of communicating the normative values of that time as a way to create and nurture a collective identity.

Whizzing past the evolution from oral tradition to literate society and the subsequent development of the dialectic tradition and the dramatization of ideas (I'll come back to this last one later), we find ourselves at what I see as the next major development in the use of communication tools to nurture culture building on a collective identity: the emergence of historical narration. For this we read Thucydides and Herodotus and debated the merits of choosing an 'objective' point of view versus a blatantly subjective point of view in analyzing and documenting a history. It was also interesting to see examples of the formation of "us" versus "the other" in a broader sociopolitical context and as a prelude to the collective identity of what would become the nation state.

Appropriately so, we next came to our class on "Political and Personal Identity," where we tackled the implications of our psychological anchoring of our personal and community identity with the 'family' and the evolution of that anchorage leading to our identity with a nation. Erich Fromm discusses the power of that transformation in the excerpt we read of The Sane Society, where he says,

"Nationalism, originally a progressive movement, replaced the bonds of feudalism and absolutism. The average man today obtains his sense of identity from his belonging to a nation, rather than from his being a 'son of man.'" (page 56)

As we saw later on in the course, this identification structure was furthered along through the standardization of language (thanks, printing press!) and later the standardization of time (thanks, telegraph and railroads!). Both of these transformations embedded us with a sense that we were surrounded beyond localized geographic location with our "imagined community" of nationhood. The nation, as Benedict Anderson tells us in Imagined Communities, is a very powerful construct:

"it is imagined as a community, because, regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship. Ultimately it is this fraternity that makes it possible, over the past two centuries, for so many millions of people, not so much to kill, as willingly to die for such limited imaginings." (page 7)

To this I would add that through the technologies of mass media, i.e., radio and television, our national collective identity was strengthened even more by the cultural products we began to consume (this relates back to my second-to-last blog post on The Dangers of Fragmentation).

More importantly for our course, in all of these instances the communication technologies that we had at our disposal helped us to make these identity-related connections primarily BECAUSE of the sociopolitical context that existed when they came to be. Which leads me to the next major item: power.

Putting it all in context: power and the future of justice
So far I hope that I've described some milestones of ways in which we have used communication tools, from oral discourse to television, to validate and perpetuate the direction of our social structure. Throughout history, we have done this because it is in our nature to live socially by identifying with each other through common characteristics such as values and culture. At this point I would like to add that it is also in our nature to seek, attain, and retain power AND to seek and attain justice. It should come as no surprise that we have historically used communication tools to seek each of them out, with mixed results: for justice - see the use of the printing press to weaken the authority of the Church; for power - see the use of television to effectively hide via self and explicit censorship political power plays leading up to and throughout the Vietnam war.

In our class, we read Euripides' and Sophocles' renditions of the story of Electra, leading to a discussion about the origins of the notion of justice and what happens when it ignored by the 'official' authority - in essence, we take matters into our own hands. These readings also continued to highlight, as had our reading of Homer, how the telling of stories through drama can influence a society's understanding of shared values. After reading Barnouw, Gitlin, and Marcuse, I am convinced that the power of the dramatization of ideas is as strong, if not stronger, than ever.  The use of television to bolster the hegemonic culture of commercialization and consumerism, is for me one of the most blatant examples of the manipulation of communication tools to retain power.

Of course, being an idealist, I have hopes that new technologies like the World Wide Web and the internet have not yet been completely swallowed up by the forces of the hegemonic status quo, and that through the development of disruptive technologies, we can build a better, more just world. After all, thanks to Prometheus blind hope is one of our greatest indicators of humanity and progress!

NOTE: I did not delve into the ongoing tension between Platonic Truth and the Sophists' more pragmatic approach (that would've been another blog post of equal length!) but I will say that I still agree with my earlier sentiment that there is an inherent imbalance of power in the Platonic approach since we are expected to follow 'the few' into the light...

Multidimensional Dilemma

'Progress' is not a neutral term; it moves towards specific ends, and these ends are defined by the possibilities of ameliorating the human condition. (Marcuse, page 16)

I found the Marcuse reading extremely challenging in a variety of ways, most notably as I tried to decipher it in relation to the Carr interview while still reeling from last week's readings on television as a conduit for the hegemonic status quo. I certainly agree with Marcuse on a macro level and I find his statements powerful, especially when he writes: 

The distinguishing feature of advanced industrial society is its effective suffocation of those needs which demand liberation - liberation also from that which is tolerable and rewarding and comfortable - while it sustains and absolves the destructive power and repressive function of the affluent society. Here, the social controls exact the overwhelming need for the production and consumption of waste; the need for stupefying work where it is no longer a real necessity; the need for modes of relaxation which soothe and prolong the stupefication; the need for maintaining such deceptive liberties as free competition at administered prices, a free press which censors itself, free choice between brands and gadgets. (page 7)

Marcuse lays it all out: we live in a society where more and more we are fed to believe that we have a multiplicity of false needs that we rarely question; these 'needs' ultimately help to maintain the running hamster wheel of production and profit for the select few. 

Where I get tangled up is when I think about the role of the internet and new media in joining this ongoing charade that we are generally blind to. Carr's position on Marcuse, I imagine, is to agree that these new technologies are detrimental for us in that they weaken our reflective modes of thought, making us even more susceptible to this one-dimensionality of living. 

I don't know if I agree with him on this. Yes, these new technologies pose a threat to our current thought processing systems -- but I fear that Carr is too afraid of change. Couldn't the unforeseen outcomes be better for us? Couldn't they ultimately help to liberate us from this one-dimensionality?? Honestly, I think it's too early to tell. 

The Dangers of Fragmentation

Has the explosion of new media played a role in fragmentation? If so, where is this likely to lead? (Barnouw, pg 546)

The above question is one of many posed by Barnouw at the conclusion of Tube of Plenty; it embodies one of the major concerns that came to my mind as I read his book and Gitlin's article. As I'll describe in more detail below, my concern stems from 1) an understanding of television (TV) as a psychological bond in people's understanding of the world and 2) the ability of the internet to create niche communities that bolster their own values without having to deal with arguing forces. 

I will start off on a personal note: As I've mentioned before, I am a Mexican American who came to the U.S. at the tender age of 3 years old. Several of my earliest memories are of watching TV (in English, of course) on Saturday mornings before my parents woke up; I was also known to reject meals in favor of finishing my TV-watching. In short, I grew up on TV. It was my window to the world and most importantly to the United States of America. Needless to say I was rarely represented in the shows I watched and when glimpses of Latinos showed up on the tube inevitably in cleaning lady roles or the more audacious "Speedy Gonzalez," they were dismissed by my parents as being "the other" and definitely not us (so it was a real shock when I heard my first "Hispanics clean houses" joke in high school -- nuh uh!). Clearly I was mesmerized by the power of TV at a young age. 

What I am trying to say is that my youth kind of exemplified what I read in Barnouw, that television as a medium reinforces the average person's view of the world (page 403). More importantly, it reaffirms the hegemonic status quo through a sort of 'communion' among viewers (here I'm referencing our brief religion discussion in class last week). As Gitlin states, 

...the most popular shows are those that succeed in speaking simultaneously to audiences that diverge in social class, race, gender, religion, and ideology: and this because of the mass market imperative of network television. (page 248)

Setting aside the problems that arise from this for a moment, let's consider how powerful this 'communion' can be: it can unite and elevate our society to address social injustices and inequalities, e.g., Murrow's "See it Now" take on McCarthy. 

Considering this, let's fast-forward to today where we have the internet and a plethora of news sources: we live in a world where those of us with liberal (and dare I say feminist?) tendencies prefer to read the take on news on sites where our views are lauded and applauded whereas those with more conservative tendencies flock to sites where their views are lauded and applauded. There is greater fragmentation in how we consume our news and while this may be good  for a wider dissemination of views (and for our egos), in my opinion they also breed a greater fragmentation of an already diverse society. There is less incentive for us to cooperate and compromise and so we dive further into diverging views. 

I can't say I know where this is likely to lead. I believe that the internet and emerging new media web-based platforms are powerful in many ways and that much good can come from the democratization of access to information that they provide. But I am weary of whether we can take advantage of it without proper media literacy and a well-rounded education overall...

Flattening the Nation through Decontextualized Time and Space

The innovation of the telegraph can stand metaphorically for all the innovations that ushered in the modern phase of history and determined, even to this day, the major lines of development of American communications. The most important fact about the telegraph is at once the most obvious and innocent: It permitted for the first time the effective separation of communication from transportation. - Carey, page 203

Carey's analysis of the telegraph (and the railroad) takes us deeper down the rabbit hole we discussed last week regarding the imagined community of the nation by highlighting how the separation of communication from transportation broadened our sense of awareness of time. This shift in awareness significantly transformed trade, helped to centralize government power, and broadened a previously localized experience of time to a nationalized and standardized one. 

Transforming Trade 

Carey begins by addressing how the telegraph affected monopoly capitalism to the extent that it forced processes of production to adapt to the new, more rapid form of communication. He states,

the volume and speed of transactions demanded a new form of organization of essentially impersonal relations - that is, relations not among known persons but among buyers and sellers whose only relation was mediated through an organization and a structure of management. - Carey, page 205

My interpretation of this is that the organizational shift in business relations led to a more impersonal set of interactions among staff that both flattened and distanced the experience by making everyone faceless and therefore similar but also unknown. Carey later discusses how there was also a standardization of products (not just business interactions) that allowed for rapid trade of mass amounts of product to happen. I wonder whether one beget the other: Was capitalism already heading in this direction and needed a tool like the telegraph to best pull it off? Or did the telegraph set off light bulbs in businessmen across the country? I imagine it's a bit of both but I'm not sure where Carey stands. 

Centralizing Imperial Government

Carey brings up another example of how the separation of communication and travel broadened our awareness when he discusses how the transatlantic cable and the telegraph created "a system in which the center of an empire could dictate rather than merely respond to the margin" (page 212). Power was no longer local by default and I imagine that this must have had some major effects on how colonies were managed and self-perceived as a component of the empire. 

Carey also discusses the standardization of time and how this came about. I read this as another example of a structure that allowed us to imagine the nation as one community. I would agree with his statement on page 224 that: 

the control of time allows for the coordination of activity and, therefore, effective social control. 

I see it as another imagined layer to the social structures we create for ourselves, which frankly, is a bit worrisome! 

The Nation defined by its Boundaries

The nation is imagined as limited because even the largest of them, encompassing perhaps a billion living human beings, has finite, if elastic, boundaries, beyond which lie other nations.

- Anderson, page 7

I find it fascinating how as social beings we are constantly defining ourselves in contrast to Others. Anderson's point that the nation is imagined as limited because it's defined in large part by its boundaries strikes me as a curious, if necessary, characteristic of how we explain and define the social structures in our world. As I processed this, the first question that came to mind was this:  If the nation is in part defined by its exclusion of all other nations, can you be a citizen of multiple nations at the same time? The legal answer, by the way, is yes in many countries and sort of in the United States. If you are becoming a naturalized citizen in the U.S., you are required to renounce any other citizenships under oath (although, the State Department doesn't often bother checking up on this anymore so you can still keep your other passport). I know this because I became a U.S. citizen about 10 years ago and am still a Mexican citizen in the eyes of Mexico.

In my experience, it's been difficult to manage the dual identity of belonging to 2 nations at the same time --  in part because establishing your national identity sometimes involves claiming that "we're" the best and always involves speaking with a point of view that comes from inside that imagined boundary ("we" being Americans by default). That's a hard transition to make! It took me years to stop referring to Americans as "you"! But eventually I did start referring to Americans as "us." My life is here and as much as I can easily access Mexico's newspapers online now, (what would Anderson make of that??) my nation as an imagined community is composed of my day-to-day interactions that are bound by American culture and physicality.

I guess the next question is whether the power of new communication tools will once again help reorganize our understanding of institutionalized imagined communities like nations? We'll have to wait and see...

Memory, Learning, and Creativity TAKE 2

So once again, I'm running a week behind in blog posts. BUT I am ending the vicious cycle this week so look for a timely post tomorrow!

In my previous post on our class titled "Memory and the emergence of the modern out of the medieval mind" (taken from our online syllabus), I spoke out against losing perspective against a new set of communication tools, e.g., Web 2.0 and The Cloud in current discourse, and the danger of claiming that they can inherently help solve issues that continue to plague us. Clearly the readings for last week on the invention of printing and changes in social, cultural, and political forms were set up to mock that blog post!

Needless to say, reading Eisenstein's chapter "An Unacknowledged Revolution" helped me see the bigger picture in understanding the dissemination of the printing press and the rippling effects it had on trades, culture, and society as a whole. I related particularly strongly with her discussion of "new kind of shop structure":

The advent of printing led to the creation of a new kind of shop structure; to a regrouping which entailed closer contacts among diversely skilled workers and encouraged new forms of cross-cultural exchange." - Eisenstein, pg 23

As someone who has worked in the Web 2.0 area for almost four years, I've seen a parallel collision of forces take place between website developers (those who create and manage where the content is stored), subject matter experts (those who drive the content), organizational leadership (those who say what goes), clients, stakeholders, etc. Everyone is intrigued by the prospect of new products that can help carry out a mission, but folks are not sure how to best accomplish it. It's an exciting process but confusing and frustrating at the same time. 

Eisenstein also touched on the fact that the printed book allowed new forms of interplay between text, tables, graphics, and drawings. I realized that I had been taking for granted a lot of the visual representations that we are currently afforded with the communication tools we have at our disposal. 

To close: I'm not taking back my previous comments because I do believe we have to tread carefully and realize that most of the Web 2.0 strategies that are part of the discourse in many industries (in public health specifically for me) involve the same common sense, cultural competency, and collaboration concepts that have been around for decades. So the tools may provide a wealth of opportunities, but if we don't apply them properly they are just gadgets (see Eisenstein's discussion of the publishing of vernacular manuals that were useless to most practicioners to understand what I mean).

P.S. I didn't comment on the Cochran reading here but found several of his points equally interesting, including:

• His argument and struggle to organize printed knowledge (which I think has happened organically more or less, no?)
• The ability to institutionalize history which helped to create the sense of national identities
• The major difference between printed books and the domains of architecture, sculpture, painting in that the latter are not reproducible in mass and can only be experienced at one point in space and concretely. 

Memory, Learning, and Creativity

...memoria is "the firm mental grasp of the words and things for the purpose of invention." 

- in Mary Carruthers' How to Make a Composition: Memory-Craft in Antiquity and in the Middle Ages

In the readings for last week, I was most intrigued by the notion that the way we interact with information and learn it -- therefore incorporating it into our existing bank of memory and knowledge -- has an effect on the way we can create and innovate new ideas, symbols, visual representations, etc. The extent of that effect is up for debate, and I imagine won't be determined anytime soon as our understanding of the human mind and spirit is continually evolving. If we stop and think about the limitations that our environment sets upon us and the ways we overcome those limitations to create new ideas (e.g., Ockham's banishment and use of memory to continue writing and philosophizing), we can begin to understand that the regardless of the tools we have at our disposal, our intellect is driving the process.

However, for me there is a tension when I think about whether this technological revolution we're experiencing will significantly change our capacity for innovation and intellectual exploration or not. In part, we can't deny the power of technological advancement as a way to advance society (e.g., consider the role of the printing press in providing access to information and helping to quickly disseminate ideas). At the same time, I like to think that human intellect and curiosity persevere even in austere communication environments. I want to keep the tools of communication that we've developed in perspective and not elevate them onto a pedestal that may in the end give us limited foresight. I fear the belief that the power of The Cloud can fix much more than it actually can.

During last week's class we didn't really discuss the fact that scouring information in books or online requires a skill-set that we acquire (including literacy at its basic level) and that not everyone has. This may be deviating from our primary interest in this class, but the issue of equitable access to information and these communication tools that are so revolutionary is a problem (dare I say an issue of justice?) that we haven't resolved yet.

Political and Personal Identities

The family and the clan, and later on the state, nation or church, assume the same function which the individual mother had originally for the child. -- Erich Fromm, page 39


Fromm's interest in the powerful psychological effects of individual psychology were really highlighted for me in Aeneas' story throughout The Aeneid. Aeneas' drive to visit his father in the Underworld and desire to embrace him showed his deep need for familial rootedness. In my opinion there was also a certain tension between this desire and his responsibility to establish a community in a new land. Ultimately he trudges ahead with his responsibility and creates rootedness at the community level, therefore looking beyond his personal desires and taking his people or society's future into account.

I appreciated the pairing of readings this week because they reminded me of the important linkages between personal identity as defined by familial history and political identity as defined by shared customs, values, and laws. In The Aeneid, the authority of the state depends heavily on Aeneas' family's energy and resources. He is an appropriate and good leader because of his heritage (e.g., his father's reputation) as well as his own valor and choices.

As we have seen throughout this semester's readings, we often define ourselves through our families -- in essence family ties are used as a language from which we learn values and customs. In this light it is only natural for us to look more deeply at the way we talk about our individual identities and our families in the past and present communications in order to understand our own human development.

Historical Narration Emerges with Style(s)

In reading Herodotus and Thucydides, I was struck by how sophisticated it was of both of them to, in their own way, analyze a set of events and retell those events through prose in their own voice. If we look back on the semester's readings we know that the origins of 'documenting' history (and values and norms) came from an oral tradition that used memesis. So here we have two authors that effectively separated themselves from the historical knowledge and broke it down according to their own methodologies -- that's pretty impressive!

A major difference between the two of them is their stylistic approach to the prose. Thucydides takes on a very detached narrative style (one could say with a smack of academic flair?), where aside from describing his methodology at the beginning, he does not refer to himself at all. Herodotus on the other hand takes on a much more personable approach where he is constantly referring back to himself and his own opinions as a way to contextualize the source of the material he is presenting.  We know that both accounts of the wars they document are not perfect as they are writing from their own ethnocentric perspective. However throughout much of Western history (especially after the Enlightenment), we have been inclined as a society to follow a Thucydides-type of approach to narrating history, where we remove ourselves from the narration in order to appear objective. Personally I prefer the approach Herodotus takes: explicitly subjective if equally manipulative! I suppose it comes down to the ongoing questions we keep asking in this course: is it better to reach for Truth even if we know we will never be perfect in reaching it? Or is it better to realize our limitations as humans and through that realization, evolve beyond seeking one Truth?

Amartya Sen and Protagoras vs. Plato

A division of responsibility that places the burden of looking after a person's interest on another person can lead to the loss of many important things in the form of motivation, involvement and self-knowledge that the person herself may be in a unique position to have. 
- Amartya Sen in Development as Freedom (1999)

After listening to the interview and reading a review of his book, I was drawn to bring out my copy of Development as Freedom that I read in undergrad in order to freshen my mind on his theories. And then I came across the above quote, underlined by myself 5 years ago! After reading Plato and Protagoras this week, this quote struck me as very pragmatic. 

In Plato's allegory of the cave, he argues that the individual who is able to reach Truth should be put in charge of the group so he can lead them towards it. In the fragments of Protagoras we learn of a completely different set of values: we only have what we experience and whether there's Truth or not, it behooves us to agree on the best choice for us somehow. Protagoras' study of language was perhaps an attempt at providing us with the tools necessary to discuss how we should find that "better" situation for ourselves, as a society. 

Reading the above quote again in this light and being aware that our world suffers many injustices and that even if there is an "ideal" we won't agree on it anytime soon or may be too selfish to pursue it, doesn't this quote just make SENSE? Shouldn't we be driving our own destinies regardless of Truth???

Electra's Cage

These joys I have from you. They are not mine to own.

(Electra, lines 1301-1302)

Of the many discussion points teeming from reading Sophocles' Electra in conjunction with Euripides' Orestes, it is the characterization of Electra that engaged me the most. In Electra, she is living a tortured life because she refuses to turn a blind eye to the injustice of her father's death which can be interpreted as stubborn or honorable or both. She has a strong spirit which she shows through her use of language: "In such a state, my friends, one cannot be moderate and restrained nor pious either. Evil is all around me, evil is what I am compelled to practice" (lines 308-310). She never bows down in an argument with her mother nor her sister and it is only when Orestes tells her he is alive and back does she allow someone else to take the reins in her life (emotionally speaking). 

Going back to the opening quote above, this is Electra speaking to Orestes, after he tells her that when their killing mission is over she will be able to at last freely show her joy. I just find it so striking that she is so easily able to carry the weight of her anger and thirst for justice and yet be unable to consider feeling joy for herself once her need for justice is served. 

I am not sure what Sophocles is trying to convey -- maybe that both men and women are capable of feeling an injustice upon them but not going so far as to say that women should do anything about it without men's help? Taking it one step further, consider that Clytemnestra is the most hated character in the play in part for taking her destiny into her own hands. Ok, she did so at the cost of a life, but isn't the value of life arbitrary in these plays anyways? Characters seem to choose when to care about someone's life or death depending on the machinations of the story. That may be too far a reach, but it's a thought to consider about the power that women do and don't have in these plays...

3 Sentences for Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound

Write 3 sentences, each one representing an idea of importance for you related to Aeschylus and our discussion. Do not write more than one sentence. If it helps, make believe that you are deciding what 3 sentences will remain of a larger work which no longer exists with the remaining sentences existing in no autograph manuscripts but only quoted by later thinkers. This is in addition to your normal journal ideas.

• Despite our individual mortality as humans, we possess an intrinsic need to progress, at times described as a "blind hope," but which is ultimately difficult to rationalize.

• Knowledge aligned with a moral purpose goes beyond brute force even if it doesn't save someone from the pain of that force.

• The source of morality is difficult to pinpoint and is often on the edge of subjectivity. 

Evolutionary religion as an index of historical change AKA Forethought is a god?!

As was mentioned during last week's class discussion, the Greek gods' social structure mirrors human society in that there is a distinct hierarchy and often they are driven primarily by emotions and desires. We see this in Prometheus Bound when we hear of Io's sufferings due to Zeus' desire for her and Hera's jealous response to this.

However the gods are also immortal and therefore able to learn from their past mistakes because the punishment they receive for their actions can't kill them. This makes them impetuous and fearless but also able to "evolve" quickly in the stories they inhabit. In this particular Greek tragedy we are faced with a god (Prometheus) that knew he would be punished for his actions and goes ahead with them because he believes that he is doing right. This shows perseverance in the face of an oppressing power (Zeus).

The more interesting purpose that I believe Prometheus Bound serves is that of helping to rationalize the evolution of human society. The gods are an external force that imposes their whims on mortals. In this particular myth, Prometheus imposes fire, innovation, and ultimately progress on them. In later Western depictions, it is MAN (and woman!) who is born with the ability to innovate. How did that change come about??

Oral Epic Identities AKA Relaying the Message

This week's readings reminded me that as much as things change, they often stay the same.

Let's start off with Havelock's statement that, He [Homer] is at once a storyteller and also a tribal encyclopedist (page 83). Throughout his 4th chapter Havelock describes how the poet intermingled the use of sounds, rhythms, repetitions, and bodily movements with the content of the story itself in order to engage the audience. By doing so he ensured comprehension of the messages within the epic as well as their sustainability for future generations. In this case the poet understood the capabilities of his audience and used the necessary strategies to successfully transfer information and knowledge, as noted by Havelock: The Homeric poet controlled the culture in which he lived for the simple reason that his poetry became and remained the only authorised version of important utterance (page 145). So the Homeric poet was essentially the sole expert at creating these oral epics and as such controlled the creation of identities that defined the social and ethical boundaries of the time (e.g., honor).

If we then tie in Havelock's interpretation of Plato's criticism of poetry, we can begin to see an evolution of thought. Plato lived in a time where rational analysis was a burgeoning discourse that challenged the process of learning by 'imitation'. With the rise of new strategies and tools for communication (i.e., prose) a new system of relaying the broad messages of social and ethical conduct was on the rise. Individuals were encouraged to learn how to analyze their world and deduce on their own how to identify themselves within it.

I would compare this divide to the current divide between traditional mass media and interactive new media where the identities that define social and ethical rules are created not by a sole source but by multiple ones using new strategies.